Question: When were the Capitulations Agreement (the agreement that granted Europeans legal immunity within the Ottoman Empire’s territories) abolished?

Explanation: The lectures connect the abolition of capitulations to the end of Europeans’ special legal privileges in places like Egypt. Under capitulations, foreign nationals were tried in their own consular courts and were effectively outside local jurisdiction. Once capitulations were abolished (1937), this shield weakened, letting local authorities enforce bans and penalties more directly against foreigners involved in the drug trade. (Reading: Kozma, Cannabis Prohibition in Egypt, 1880–1939). Quote: “Until the 1937 abolition of capitulations… [foreigners] were tried in their consular courts, and were thus immune to Egyptian law.” Capitulations in Egypt were 16th-century Ottoman-granted treaties, later exploited by European powers to establish legal, economic, and judicial exemptions for foreigners on Egyptian soil. These privileges allowed foreign courts, tax exemptions, and protection from local laws, facilitating European dominance and undermining Egyptian sovereignty until their abolition in 1937.